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Ventilation in 19th-century hospital wards

Professor Alan Short examined the work of John Shaw Billings, who influenced the architectural 6. of hospitals to ensure they had good ventilation. He calculated that 7. in the air coming from patients suffering from 8. would not have harmed other patients. He also found that the air in 9. in hospitals could change as often as in a modern operating theatre. He suggests that energy use could be reduced by locating more patients in 10. areas.

A major reason for improving ventilation in 19th-century hospitals was the demand from the 11. for protection against bad air, known as 12. . These were blamed for the spread of disease for hundreds of years, including epidemics of 13. in London and Paris in the middle of the 19th century.